Introduction to Cultural Anthropology †Summary Essay

How does Language affect the meanings we assign to our experience? The Ideas of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf demonstrate that the vocabulary of a language may direct perception to certain features of the environment, and the grammar of a language may encourage certain ways of looking at the world. The selection of metaphors also has an impact on the meanings we assign to experience. By taking language from one experience and applying it to another, we carry the meaning of one experience to the other. Robbins then explores the ways in which symbolic action reinforces a particular view of the world. Ritual, for example, symbolically depicts a certain view of reality in such a way that it convinces us of the truth of that reality. Examples include the Cannibal Dance of the Kwakwaka’wakw, which shows the values of Kwakwaka’wakw society and provides members with a way to control their lives, and the rituals of contemporary English magic and witchcraft, which convince persons of this society that mental forces can influence the material world. Walter Benjamin’s Surrealism essay explains how these competing political aims manifest themselves at the level of aesthetic form: â€Å"Here due weight must be given to the insight that in the Traite du style, Aragon’s last book, required a distinction between metaphor and image, a happy insight into questions of style that needs extending. Extension: nowhere do these two — metaphor and image — collide so drastically and so irreconcilably as in politics. For to organize pessimism means nothing other than to expel moral metaphor from politics and to discover in political action a sphere reserved one hundred percent for images. Only when in technology body and image so interpenetrate that all revolutionary tension becomes bodily collective innervation, and all the bodily innervations of the collective become revolutionary discharge, has reality transcended itself to the extent demanded by the Communist Manifesto. For the moment, only the Surrealists have understood its present commands. They exchange, to a man, the play of human features for the face of an alarm clock that in each minute rings for sixty seconds. † Benjamin’s analysis here provides the scattered fragments of a political-aesthetic diagnosis of surrealism which would differentiate this movement from conservative romantic traditions. While such traditions trade in â€Å"moral metaphor† and the â€Å"play of human features† — idealized human forms which are meant to serve as soothing allegories of the supposedly homogenous and unified social body — surrealists circulate what Benjamin elsewhere terms â€Å"dialectical images. † In his writings regarding the Cultural Industry, Adorno continues to emphasis the theories of the Frankfurt school and the concepts of Marx. The terms ‘mass deception’ and ‘social control’ seem to most accurately describe the ideas and theories that Adorno prescribe. He further suggests the notion that socially, we are conditioned to think rationally, reasonably and through a scientific approach, which when structured to appease the larger cultural industry, functions by disallowing the potential for human individuality, and re-emphasizing the myth that such individuality could even exist. According to the text we are conditioned to be obedient to the great social hierarchy, thus the opportunity for any social change is limited, is it not? The notion that culture is entertainment is also introduced, and that as individuals, we can only accept out work/roles knowing that pleasure will ultimately be rewarded. 2. Summarize what you consider to be the relationship between the assigned readings. How do the readings speak to each other? – All three authors I believe have a relationship with expressing metaphors in their texts. A thing regarded as representative or symbolic of something else, especially something abstract. Throughout each reading society, cultural, language, politics, thinking, and social change is present in all three readings and in all three these words are represented with symbolic meaning and/or have a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action. Through these metaphors I believe is the way that these texts speak to one another. Each text you can find similar symbolic meaning and a word or phrase that is attached to an object or action. . Identify one or more passages that you feel are especially provocative, suggestive, dubious or illustrative of the author’s argument. – In the Richard Robbins text one passage especially was provocative to the author’s argument in symbolic action reinforces a particular view of the world and the reality we as human beings live in. â€Å"Ritual, for example, symbolically depicts a certain view of r eality in such a way that it convinces us of the truth of that reality†. In the Walter Benjamin Text one passage especially was provocative to the author’s argument in explaining how competing political aims manifest themselves at the level of aesthetic form. â€Å"Here due weight must be given to the insight that in the Traite du style, Aragon’s last book, required a distinction between metaphor and image, a happy insight into questions of style that needs extending. Extension: nowhere do these two — metaphor and image — collide so drastically and so irreconcilably as in politics. † In the Theodor Adorno text one passage especially was provocative to the author’s argument in the notion that socially, we are conditioned to think rationally, reasonably and through a scientific approach, which when structured to appease the larger cultural industry, functions by disallowing the potential for human individuality, and re-emphasizing the myth that such individuality could even exist. â€Å"The notion that culture is entertainment is also introduced, and that as individuals, we can only accept out work/roles knowing that pleasure will ultimately be rewarded. Thus, must not culture and society be forced to change, as it was also interpreted that pleasure without change becomes a sort of work, and then our understanding/defining of pleasure must be constantly changing in order for the mass society to maintain social obedience. 4. Briefly compare the texts you have read or some aspect of it/them, with a previous selection or selections read in this course. – I reread â€Å"A Berlin Chronicle† in Reflections and then read the whole of Berlin Childhood around 1900. I thought about how he had not been able to return, and how he had written Berlin Childhood around 1900 precisely as a way of dealing with the irrevocable loss of the world of his childhood and its security. Benjamin knew by 1932 that he would never be able to return to Berlin his home again. Benjamin immortalized the cities that had rejected him, writing about his memories of earlier and safer times. Benjamin is recalling a lost world. He selects a variety of places and spaces that contain or prompt memories of his childhood and the high bourgeois world that nourished his fantasies and predilections. By 1932 this world was gone, or at least inaccessible to Benjamin and other Jews like him. Reading this text I can compare it to Richard Robbins chapter 4 material when he writes â€Å"demonstrate that the vocabulary of a language may direct perception to certain features of the environment, and the grammar of a language may encourage certain ways of looking at the world. † Reading this helped me understand â€Å"A Berlin Chronicle† and how Walter Benjamin’s language and vocabulary were in direct result of the environment he was living in and how that encouraged his view on Berlin. Also, Comparing â€Å"A Berlin Chronicle† to Theodor Adorno’s The Culture Industry I found a passage that directly relates to Walter Benjamin and his time in Berlin. â€Å"He further suggests the notion that socially, we are conditioned to think rationally, reasonably and through a scientific approach, which when structured to appease the larger cultural industry, functions by disallowing the potential for human individuality, and re-emphasizing the myth that such individuality could even exist. According to the text we are conditioned to be obedient to the great social hierarchy, thus the opportunity for any social change is limited. † After reading this passage you can relate this to the larger cultural as the Nazis as they were the ones disallowing the potential for human individuality against the Jews, while reemphasizing the myth that such Jewish individuality could even exist. 5. Offer a brief critical assessment of the texts and its ideas: Do you find that it opens up new avenues of inquiry or reveals new knowledge? What question does it raise for you? How would you evaluate them overall? -Out of the three texts I found an interesting passage out of Walter Benjamin’s Surrealism text that opens up new avenues of inquiry and reveals new knowledge for the reader. â€Å"There is always, in such movements, a moment when the original tension of the secret society must either explode in a matter of fact, profane struggle for power and domination, or decay as a public demonstration and be transformed. Reading this passage and the author’s use of the word illumination throughout the essay, the reader could easily open a new avenue on a secret society named the Illuminati. The author even stats â€Å"And the most passionate investigation of the hashish trance will not teach us half as much about thinking, as the profane illumination of thinking about the hashish trance. The reader, the thinker, the loiterer, the flaneur, are types of illuminati just as much as the opium eater, the dreamer, and the ecstatic. And more profane. Not to mention that most terrible drug –ourselves- which we take in solitude. With so many references or should I say hidden references I can only ask if Walter Benjamin is referring to this secret society the Illuminati. Overall all three texts had their strong points but from day one when I began Walter Benjamin’s readings he has captured me in ways other authors haven’t. It could be that he writes essays while intoxicated or how it seems there is always secret meaning in his writings. If not secret then definitely meaning that could be explored even further and spend a whole class just decoding this topic.

Growth In Writing

Writing is one of my favorite things to do. Expressing yourself is so much easier when given time to think about what needs to be said. I would like to believe that I have a very rich writing history. I keep a journal of all my daily events. I also keep a book close by so if I think of any poems I can write them down right away. My favorite piece of writing was a story that I wrote in my first semester English class. The name of the story was Fade. This Semester two of my classes will require me to turn in written assignments. This semester should not be two difficult in terms of how much writing I have to do. From my preliminary observations I can tell that I will have one short paper due in Art History 107 class. Although I only have one paper I have one paper, I have two essay exams in my History class. I believe that with some help the writing portion of this semester should be successful. The Art History paper has to be two pages long. I have to go to a museum and compare two of the exhibits to each other. Professor Cutis said that the first page of the paper should be talking about my reactions to the exhibits using the vocabulary that we learned in class. The second page should discuss the different time periods and there affects on how the critics might have critiqued the works of art. Also, we have to describe what kind of techniques the artist might have used and why. The most difficult part of this paper I believe will be trying to utilize the vocabulary that my professor wants us to use, and figuring out the right ways to critique the art. As for my essay exams in History, I have had a problem getting the right amount of details incorporated with the facts. I talked to my History professor and he said that the best way to know which details to add is to, read and re-read the notes from our lectures. I have been trying to take very detailed notes so it will not be a problem when the time comes for our first exam. To conclude, this semester seems like this semester will be smooth sailing when it comes to the writing aspect of my classes. I am hoping that with the help I receive from my writing class I can produce the best papers of my college career.

The institutional gaze and Disciplining Research Paper

The institutional gaze and Disciplining - Research Paper Example ern their remit and conduct, such hospitals or prisons, while others have more implicit rules, which we perceive as conventions or habits, such as theatre going or sports fandom. Most of the time people unconsciously abide by the rules set in these institutions, or willingly submit to the rules that they can clearly see, and this compliance is regarded by the majority as â€Å"normal† behaviour, while those who do not display compliance are labelled in some way â€Å"sick†, â€Å"abnormal†, â€Å"deviant† or even â€Å"criminal†. Throughout the twentieth century scholars in different disciplines began to unpick this dynamic and look for ways to explore what is going on here, why it is happening, and how these patterns are created and maintained. It was recognised by linguists that many of these issues are expressed in the way that people and organisations communicate with each other. A method called â€Å"discourse analysis† was developed in the field of linguistics which allows close examination of individual pieces of communication between people, whether in daily speech, in writing or in television programmes, instruction leaflets or any other context. This method provides â€Å"rather powerful, while subtle and precise, insights† and allows us to â€Å"witness the realization of the macrosociological patterns that characterize our society† (Van Dijk, 185, 7). In this paper we shall use a discourse analysis approach to investigate a portion of communications from the field of healthcare : the â€Å"Smoke Free† website from the UK National Health Service. In particular we shall look at how participants are recruited into this programme, how the programme sets behaviour codes, monitors the individuals, and keeps records on them. Close analysis of the actual communications will only take us so far, however, and as Van Dijk realised, there are also â€Å"macrosocial† factors to consider. One of the most influential scholars in this, as in other fields, has been Michael

Relationship between Workload and Effectiveness in the Nursing Research Paper

Relationship between Workload and Effectiveness in the Nursing Practice - Research Paper Example Unfortunately, though, there often arise factors such imbalanced nurse-patient ratio, lack of motivation, ill-resourced facilities and absence of on-the-job training that prevent nurses from working as effectively as they are expected to. It is against this background that the present project is being carried out to ascertain how a properly planned nurse-to-patient ratio can help in improving the service delivery given by nurses to patients. Some emphasis will be given to nurse-to-patient ratio through the other factors mentioned shall be considered. At the end of the project, it is expected that there will be a clear outline of new responsibilities expected of nurses even as their duties will be adjusted. There will also be a major recommendation to cut down the couple-per-nurse from four mothers and four babies to three mothers and three babies per nurse. The work of the nurse is undoubtedly one of the most stressful professions. This is because it entails working with different people with different needs and attitudes. Regardless of the health needs of the patient and the patient’s personal attitude, the nurse is expected to fit in squarely without fail. This indeed is a very challenging situation for any nurse at all. In light of this, researchers have come to study the relationship between the workload of a nurse and effectiveness at the workplace. According to a recent study, nurses work best if the workload they have to handle per day (8 hours) is minimal enough to attract full attention. This means that overcrowding of patient population would automatically stress the nurse up and affect her effectiveness at work. Such nurses may either resort to falling on inexperienced nursing assistance or abandoning certain core aspects of their work.  

A business plan for a restaurant business named Stake House Essay

A business plan for a restaurant business named Stake House - Essay Example tive Summary The report will describe a business plan for a restaurant business named Stake House. The planned restaurant will be located in Moorgate, London in the United Kingdom. The motivation for developing this business plan is to participate in a programme of â€Å"Channel Four†. The programme seeks to encourage young entrepreneurs and it will help the entrepreneurs to grow and will provide support to the business plan by shadowing the entrepreneur for one year. By keeping this factor in view, Stake House will intend to develop a proficient and profitable business plan in which it will be aimed to provide various kinds of burgers, sandwiches, pies and other top quality meals. The foods will be served with snacks and the customers will be provided with their chosen sauces and gravy flavours. The foods of the restaurant will focus on British traditions and will be based on the privileged recipes throughout the UK. The restaurant will also feature early bird menu as well as will comprise of numerous drinks to choose from. There will be space for almost 10–15 people at a time and will increase according to the progress and expansion of business. It is expected that Stake House will become one of the popular meal destinations in London area which will serve local people, especially young customers. 1.1 Objectives Stake House business plan will have three objectives, which are: To participate and seek for support from â€Å"Channel Four† programme in order to initiate the plan To become one of the popular and preferable meal destinations for young professionals and students To deliver high quality food with affordable rate To certify satisfactory transparency in food making process To increase the sales and to maintain a satisfactory profit Every strategy and decision taken in the business plan will seek to fulfil and accomplish those objectives, as it is related with the success of the Stake House. 1.2 Mission The concept of Stake House bu siness is generated from the success of several informal restaurants in London area and high demand of quality meal for young professionals and students. Therefore, the restaurant will seek to provide accessible and affordable food, drinks, and breakfast and lunch menus. In due course of time, Stake House will establish itself as one of the favourite destinations of food for young customers in the metropolitan area as well as for outside visitors. It will be the mission of Stake House to serve high quality burgers, sandwiches and other meals with healthy contents and good taste. Besides, Stake House will also deliver excellent customer service so that customers become satisfied and loyal towards the restaurant. 1.3 Keys to Success The keys for success in this business are: Quality Products: Stake House will provide quality products to the customers by ensuring hygienic items and healthy components Effective Customer Service: Effective customer service is one of the significant eleme nts for success which helps to increase the brand loyalty of customers. Effective Marketing: Stake House will market their product offerings through print media in order to attract potential customers. Efficient Financial Control: Financial control is necessary for making profit. Efficient financial control will help to keep the operational cost down and increase the profitability of business. Strong

Radical criminology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Radical criminology - Essay Example The words pass on a certain importance for the "sender," and, in powerful correspondence, they ought to have the same significance for the "collector." Since words are alterable, they oblige expectation and understanding. Along these lines, numerous offenders are persuaded by the normal changing progress of this world to settle on their choices. Prior criminology exploration has accentuated the significance of review wrongdoing and misconduct inside the structure of the life-course or life-compass improvement (Sampson and Laub 1992). An existence course opens new inquiries in the investigation of abnormality, for example, the importance of certain pathways, directions, and life course in the life of a criminal. The former studies agree that directions, pathways, and moves are imperative and that a general hypothesis of wrongdoing ought to consolidate an existence course see (Farrington 1992) This paper investigates the potential commitment of typical connection to an existence course hypothesis of wrongdoing. It contends that such a perspective gives a hypothesis of the importance of life-course activities and a situational hypothesis of the instrument by which such moves interpret into criminal acts sustained in our public. Whilst there are numerous varieties on the radical subject in criminology, the term radical criminology has turned into a cynosure for viewpoints that make crucial the comprehension that certain demonstrations are law violations because certain individuals have the ability to make them so. The dependence on what has been seen as the oppositional ideal model, administrational criminology, which has a tendency to concentrate on the criminological classifications that administrations wish to highlight can be addressed. This model is sure about the thought that a criminal is not conceived characteristically yet is as an aftereffect of the earth in which they live in. Fundamentally, an individual is comprised of the whole result

Career Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Career Plan - Essay Example In this respect, graduates possessing degree in FCS are facilitated with the opportunity of building an effective career in different professional areas relating to dietetics, hospitality, education, communication and interior design among others. Additionally, individuals after the completion of their FCS course are recognized to have high career demand in the present job market. (Iowa State University, â€Å"Family and Consumer Sciences Education and Studies (FCEdS)†). In this context, I have planned to pursue course in FCS with the aim of possessing better career opportunities. Professionals with FCS graduates have developed their career path successfully with a better competitive position. The FCS professionals are also facilitated with the opportunity of having better career options in their career life owing to diversified specialization options. Presently, graduates on completion of FCS course are able to build successful career path with better job security as well as sustainability. I am an undergraduate student at present and I have planned to pursue graduate degree course in the field of FCS with the intention of having better career opportunities after completion of graduate degree. I have planned to develop a career in FCS, as the course program will aid me in developing skill sets in different areas that include communication, creativity, critical thinking and collaboration. Subsequently, the skill sets acquired from FCS course are mostly demanded in job market. The coursework and skill sets will also facilitate me in enhancing life quality of different individuals. Additionally, the course will also aid in building interrelationship amid people within communities in different economic, physical as well as social environment. The report published by the ‘U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) signified that graduates in FCS pursuing profession as nutritionists as well as dietitians are

The song of Umass Boston-arifact that exemplifies the culture of UMass Assignment

The song of Umass Boston-arifact that exemplifies the culture of UMass Boston - Assignment Example This idea is strengthened in the third line wherein the speakers say they follow the torch wherever it leads them to. The phrase â€Å"saw a crown on your brow† perhaps talks about the vision of the school. Crowns are often placed on the head but the song says that there is a crown on UMass brow. This could mean nothing else but the vision of the school to produce graduates who will be able to reign in their own chosen careers. This vision can be attained by following the teachings of the school as she trains imparts knowledge and wisdom to the students and train them to become more passionate to fight for what is just and right. As the years went by, the passion of UMass never dimmed. Rather, her light remained its brightness, guiding many people in their lives. As people witnessed more and more graduates of UMass being led into the world where they succeeded, many have dreamed to become one of them and this made them more confident that the school can indeed guide them as she envisioned it. Moreover, the people’s hope that they can be a part of UMass and become successful lessened their fears of what life may have for them. People witnessed how the university remained steadfast in her dreams for her children despite the adversaries and doubts of the people watching her. Her passion never diminished but rather maintained the desire of those who trusted her and walked with her. As a result, many have placed their trust in her as well, considering the university as good and just. On the last stanza, the speakers wish the school the best, mentioning that they desire for her torch to remain steadfastly burning as ever. They hope that even if they are not here on earth anymore to witness how the school will continue with her vision and mission, may she never grow tired nor put her torch down nor let her passions die. Instead, they desire

Psychiatric Nursing Reflective Journals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Psychiatric Nursing Reflective Journals - Essay Example She appeared inattentive to my instructions and needed three repetitions of what I had said for her to understand me. When she had obeyed my instructions, I admired volubly her pretty appearance and hugged her. To my queries, she had just stared at me as if she was scared but today she called me up. Seizing the opportunity, I moved up. Nervously pulling me to her side and looking around to ensure that nobody was within hearing distance, she whispered in my ear. Her neighbor was plotting to kill her and her husband, it seemed. She had heard noises from her backyard which sounded like gunshots when she had been in the kitchen at home. Her movements appeared jerky and speech was not incoherent but appeared monotonous. Realizing that her suspicious and guarded nature was characteristic of her condition, paranoid schizophrenia, I pretended to be a good listener to gain her confidence. She claimed that the neighbor of around her age was attracted to her and was eyeing her sexually. Several times he had approached her for sexual favors. She had told her husband about this but he did not believe her. At times the neighbor had thrown stones at her house when she was alone and had rung the doorbell several times. Each time she went to the door, there would be no one. Saying all of this at one go, she quickly pushed me aside when she noticed the nursing supervisor arriving. When the supervisor had left, Mrs. Jones again strode up to me and caught my attention. She told me that her husband was a good man but he did not believe her stories and told me to keep what she told a secret. Half an hour later, Mrs. Jones did not appear to want to talk with me. When I smiled at her, she seemed to have no recognition. I was a little taken back by the stony look on her face. Her husband had told me that she was a receptionist in a hotel and very much appreciated by the others and customers. Believing that she was then well, she had stopped her treatment. He had not noticed the medicin es not being taken. This had triggered this episode. She had also not kept her appointments with the psychotherapist. Anyone would have believed this lady the way she told the stories. They would have been credible had they come from a normal person. The fact that she was admitted for paranoid schizophrenia reminded me that the stories could be delusions. Though I had studied about schizophrenia and its various forms and symptoms, this was the first time that I was in close contact with a person with schizophrenia. Having no physical deficiencies, Mrs. Jones could easily pass on the road without anyone realizing the depth of mental illness that she had, the extent of trouble that she could create and the magnitude of suffering that she went through. What she needed was sympathetic people around her and proper pharmacological and psychological treatment. A person who did not know her to be a patient could even irritate her unknowingly. This was the situation for most psychiatric diso rders. When we were taught psychiatry, we never realized that most psychiatric patients became ill only occasionally and that most of their lives; they were presumably fine and able to work like Mrs. Jones. Treatment allowed them to be a part of normal society. However the treatment schedules should never be missed. I also noted that psychiatric patients should never be allowed to consume drugs without supervision. A family member had to take responsibility. This was another of my new learning. It would serve

The role of consideration in contract Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The role of consideration in contract - Outline Example Many European countries have adopted the position that any agreement that is both serious and lawful is a contract, but under English law, an agreement, even if serious and lawful, can only be enforced if consideration is present (Mothersole & Ridley 1999:360). Consideration thus, separates enforceable contracts from unenforceable ones, constituting the first of the three-pronged tests in contract enforceability (Stone 2011:87). The difference between these systems is thought to be historical-based, with the English assumpsit, or legal action for breach of promise or contract, traced back to commercial needs whilst continental law originated from the canon law and the principle of good faith (Chandler & Brown 2007:46). Another significance of consideration is that it provides intent of the parties to be legally bound by their agreement. Thus, even a token amount can be deemed consideration although it may be inadequate or insufficient. The Court has held, for example, that  £1 per annum was consideration in Thomas v Thomas [1842] 2 QB 851 and generally declared that parties may enter a contract for any amount of consideration, even valueless ones, in Chapell & Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd [1960] AC 87 (Chandler & Brown

Doris Lessings Book Character Essay Example for Free

Doris Lessings Book Character Essay We are first introduced to Mary as being an independent young woman. However Lessing’s character soon shows signs of being an insecure woman, who cares deeply what other people think about her. The reader is forced to sympathise with this self-destructing character. Throughout the novel Mary is described as being in a state of tension and under strain. Mary is unable to adapt to her new life on the farm with Dick, she is constantly longing for the town she left behind. The linear plot is about Mary Turner’s life, going back to her childhood and progressing to her characters fatal ending. The narrator tells of Mary being raised by â€Å"frustrated parents† and the hatred she felt towards her father. Her body is treated with discust,†She smelt the thick stuff of his trousers†, a possibility that some sort of child abuse occurred, which would account for her arrested sexuality, the fear and repulsion of sex. Mary becomes a friendless character who receives no help from her Husband and no loyalty from the servant. However violent Mary becomes with her servant she never actually commits a crime. Mary is driven to marry Dick after she over hears people mocking her and she feels she is being ostracized. The reader views Mary as a heroine who has lost her struggle. We are told by the narrator that evil was not contained within this woman but that evil was all around her. Throughout the novel the author’s disapproval of sexual and political prejudice and the colonialism in South Africa is constantly reinforced. This in turn influences the reader not to adapt to the main characters viewing of the world. Lessing’s novel can be seen as Mary’s constant struggle to preserve her authenticity and sense of self but she fails to overcome her struggle due to the forces and conditions that surround her. Mary’s failures are rooted in her family and culture that in turn dooms her to her death. Although at the beginning of Mary and Moses’s relationship, Mary exerts all her power and authority, we soon see a role reversal and a curious relationship develop when Moses insists on being treated like a human. From the beginning of the novel we become aware of Mary’s family struggles of poverty. Lessing intentionally tried to make the reader constantly switch from sympathising with Mary to despising her. Both Mary and Dick are identified as being tragic figures because of their failure to communicate and to address the practical and emotional difficulties in their lives. Mary  believed that she was as a white person is superior to the black natives in every way. The relationship that Mary develops with her black servant Moses shatters the complacency of the whites in Africa. Moses’ power in the relationship is unquestionable and real. His action in murdering Mary is simply a demonstration of the control which he exerts over her and in general which the blacks have in their own country still. The whites only retain a hold based on lies and corruption The land is what kills Mary. Mary’s efforts to assert her white authority over a black man continually backfire and leave her with less control. â€Å"While it is never explicitly stated, the novel suggests that Mary succumbs to him sexually just as her mental faculties begin to disintegrate†(40) Mary’s cognizance of the murder as one compounded  by her own guilt and by vengeance, rather than unwarranted aggression, shows a strange ability to forgive her own murderer even as he performs the act that she knows he is compelled to do.(42) Theshadow of regret, followed by the desire to explain and to be absolved of guilt, marks the first and only moment in the novel in which Mary is conceived as a self-possessed agent of her own destiny(43) The reader never consent to Mary’s view of the world but they can relate to the traditions and cultures that she was raised in that influenced her behaviour. Mary had been brought up to be afraid of black men: â€Å"She was afraid of them [the natives], of course. Every woman in South Africa is brought up to be. In her childhood she had been forbidden to walk out alone, and when she asked why, she had been told in the furtive, lowered, but matter-of-fact voice she associated with her mother, that they were nasty and might do horrible things to her†(chapt4) â€Å"She hated their half-naked, thick-muscled black bodies stooping in the  mindless rhythm of their work. She hated their sullenness, their averted eyes when they spoke to her, their veiled insolence; and she hated more than anything, with a violent physical repulsion, the heavy smell that came from the, a hot, sour animal smell.†(chap.7) The reader identifies with Mary’s Emotional failure as a white woman, a wife that rendered from her childhood upbringing and formed her into this insecure woman.

Literature Review On Plantar Fasciitis Health And Social Care Essay

Literature Review On Plantar Fasciitis Health And Social Care Essay Well I would like to describe the prevalence and research about the topic in brief in this part as it is important to know why this topic has become an issue now and why do we need to make research on it. Plantar fasciitis is found to be the common foot complaint. It has been estimated that it affects approximately one in ten people at some time in their life (Crawford, Atkins, Edwards, 2003). However, it can occur at any age. It is twice as common in women as men and it is also common in athletes (NHS Clinical knowledge, 2009). The most common cause is infracalcaneal pain of plantar fasciitis and accounts for 11% to 15% of all foot complaints that require professional treatment (Buchbinder, 2004). A recent survey done by Riddle and Schappert in (2004) estimated that there are approximately one million patient visits per year to office-based physians and hospital departments in the United States by patients diagnosed as having plantar fasciitis. It occurs in approximately 10% of people who run regularly. Incidence of this condition peaks between the ages of 40 and 60 years (Buchbinder, 2004; Wearing , Smeathers , Urry et al., 2006). It is a bilateral complaint in about one third of pa tients (Buchbinder, 2004 ). Podiatric physicians, rheumatologists, general practitioners, physiotherapists and orthopaedic surgeons are the main healthcare providers involved in the treatment of plantar fasciitis (Riddle Schappert, 2004; Crawford and Thomson, 2003; Atkins et al., 1999). As I have been working as a musculoskeletal physiotherapist this topic quite influences me as most of the patient which i have been looking suffer from this injury. So in this systematic review i would be discussing about effectiveness of low-dye taping technique in plantar fasciitis. Plantar fasciitis is not gender specific and affects approximately 2 million of the American population per year (Irving , Cook and Menz, 2006). This disorder is expected to have many factors in origin such as obesity, excessive periods of weightbearing activity and decreased ankle range of motion commonly suggested to be involved (Riddle, Pulisic, Pidcoe, Johnson 2003). A wide diversity of treatment strategies have be en developed. Up to 90% of patients treated conservatively (eg taping and ultrasound), they experienced resolutions of symptoms (Thomas et al., 2001; Gill, 1997). There limited support of evidence showing specific treatment strategies for plantar fasciitis (Crawford and Thomson, 2003; Gill, 1997; McPoil et al., 2008). Atkins et al. (1999) identified 28 different conservative treatments and eight different surgical treatments, which confirms the vagueness of this condition. Foot orthoses are a common treatment for plantar heel pain, however due to the manufacturing process, they often require a time of a few weeks between the initial consultation and issuing the devices (Kosmahl, 1987; Lynch et al., 1998; Martin et al., 2001; Scherer, 1991). As such, short-term treatments such as supportive taping are used to improve symptoms during this temporary period (Martin JE, Hosch, Goforth, Murff, Lynch, Odom 2001) the low-Dye (Dye 1939) taping technique being one of the most frequently used . Foot taping, such as low-dye taping, alters the mechanical function of the foot, decreasing stress on the plantar fascia and subsequently producing symptom relief (Saxelby, Betts, Bygrave 1997). Low-Dye taping by Dye in (1939) is a common conservative treatment for plantar fasciitis. Most research (Ator et al., 1991; Childs et al., 1996; Del et al., 2004; Harradine, Jarrett, 2001; Holmes, Wilcox, Fletcher, 2002; Keenan, Tanner, 2001; Moss, Gorton, Deters, 1993; Russo, Chipchase, 2001; Scranton, Pedangana, Whitesal, 1982; Vicenzino et al., 1997; Whitaker, Augustus, Ishi, 2003) to date has examined the mechanical effects of the tape on the lower limb. One of the study done by Saxelby et al. in 1997 has evaluated the symptom relief offered by low-dye taping, but it had small numbers of participants and did not include a control group. But consequently there is need for larger studies that use a control group for comparison so we need to carry out this study. Those tapings which extended up the leg were known as High-Dye, while those in the foot were named Low-Dye. It has been used in the management of an array of foot pathologies, especially plantar fasciitis, and its effectiveness has been discussed by several workers (Newell1977, Miller 1977, Subotnick 1975, Van Pelt 1989). Taping as an intervention or as part of an intervention for the treatment of plantar fasciitis has been used for at least 70 years (Dye 1939). A systematic review assessing the efficacy of low-dye treatment strategy has not been found. Therefore, it was considered relevant to conduct the review. The discussion about the basic information regarding the topic in detail and why it is an issue now will be discussed in the following chapter. Well the basic aim of this review is asking whether low-dye taping is effective in the management of plantar fasciitis or not? The purpose of this study is to give low-dye taping treatment to people suffering from plantar fasciitis with respect to pain relief, gait improvement, impact on lifestyle and overall rate of success. The systematic review helps to identify the papers which relate to the question asked by the review and in turn will help to answer the review question. A organised SR protocol should be developed to carry the review in a easy way. The systematic review should be carried out in an organised manner as follows: Background: Intially i would like to discuss about plantar fascia, its situation and what structures it covers and how it causes injury. According to Haung 1993, the plantar fascia is the major arrangement that supports and maintains the arched position of the foot. This aponeurosis acts as a bowstring to grip up the longitudinal arch. It covers the major part of the foot. The planter fascia is a fat, fibrous group of connective tissue. Its starting point is the medial plantar tubercle of the calcaneum. It extends along the length of the sole of the foot like a fan, being attached at its other end to the bottom of each of the toes. It is a tough, flexible structure that has a number of significant functions during running and walking. It stabilizes the metatarsal joints during impact with the ground. It behaves as a shock absorber for the whole leg. It forms the longitudinal arch of the foot and helps to raise the arch to get ready for the take-off phase of the gait cycle. The plantar fascia helps to preserve the complex arch system of the foot and plays role in ones equilibrium and the various phases of gait. The pla ntar fascia consists of a multilayered fibrous aponeurosis (Kwong, Kay, Voner, White, 1988) that starts from the medial tubercle of the calcaneus .The plantar fascia is made of three major bands, the lateral, central, and medial. The central band is the strongest and thickest. The medial and lateral bands cover the undersurface of the abductor hallucis and abductor digiti minimi muscles, respectively. The fibers of the central band separate into 5 slips near the level of the metatarsal heads and then attach to the proximal phalanx via the plantar plate of each metatarsophalangeal joint (Schepsis, Leach, Gorzyca, 1991). Figure 1 Now we will discuss about plantar fasciitis. Here are some acceptable definitions of plantar fasciitis cited by experts which would be helpful in this study. Injury of this tissue, called as a plantar fasciitis, is very difficult to resolve. Plantar fasciitis is a localized inflammatory condition of the plantar aponeurosis of the foot and is reported to be the most common cause of inferior heel pain (Schepsis, Leach, Gorzyca, 1991). Plantar fasciitis represents the fourth most common injury to the lower limb and represent 8 10% of all presenting injuries to sports clinics. It can be caused by many factors. Plantar fasciitis develops when repetitive weight-bearing stress irritates and inflames the tough connective tissues along the base of the foot. It is difficult to treat. Rehabilitation can be long and frustrating process. The use of preventing exercise and early acknowledgment of danger signals are considerable in the avoidance of this injury. Plantar fasciitis refers to an inflammation of the plantar fascia. The inflammation in the tissue results in some type of injury to the plantar fascia. Typically plantar fasciitis ults from rep eated trauma to the tissue where it attaches to the calcaneus. According to souza, plantar fasciitis presents as a sharp heel pain that radiates next to the bottom of inside of the foot. In short the definition varies from person to person and it mainly depends upon the cause. The pain is found to be terrible when getting out of bed in the morning. Plantar fasciitis is a aching condition of the subcalcaneal aspect of the foot resulting from soreness or contracture of the deep fascia of the sole with or without calcaneal spur. Plantar fasciitis has been used synonymously with the following terms: Painful heel syndrome Subcalcaneal bursitis Subcalcaneal pain Runners heel Medial arch sprain According to Baxter, Plantar fasciitis can take place in runners or other athletes who repetitively land on the foot. Plantar fasciitis is an overuse damage whose occurrence accounts for 10% of all running injuries (Am J Sports Med 1991). Another vulnerable group is middle-aged people who use up much time on their feet. More infrequently, the fascia becomes irritated after a single traumatic episode, such as landing incorrectly after a jump or running a long hill. The massive majority of people will respond to conservative care and not require surgery. Appropriate treatment is necessary, however, to permit continuous participation in sports and daily activities, and to stay away from chronic damage. Risk factors: Plantar fasciitis is particularly prevalent in runners and people who are overweight (Hill and Cutting, 1989), however, it is also prevalent in people with systemic, inflammatory arthritis (Davis and Blair, 1950; Hassani et al., 2002; Furey, 1975; Gerster, 1980). Despite plantar fasciitis being a relatively common disorder, little is known about its etiology and pathogenesis (Wearing et al., 2006). Most anecdotally (Singh et al., 1997; Irving, Cook and Menz, 2006; Rome, 1997), intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for plantar fasciitis have been reported. Participants in sports that engage some degree of running and jumping, e.g. basketball, tennis, step-aerobics, dancing may be at risk. Non-athletic people who spend much time on their feet. It may emerge in someone who suddenly becomes more active after a time of relative inactivity. Running on hard ground aggravates the risk, as does an increase in hill training. Worn out trainers boost risk as they lose their shock absorption prope rties. Obesity increases risk. There is increase in stress placed through the fascia. Other mechanical risk factors include flat feet (pes planus) and having a high arch (pes cavus). Studies done by (Riddle et al., 2003; Irving et al., 2007) identified that reduced talocrural dorsiflexion, high body mass index, pronated foot posture, and prolonged work related weightbearing are independent risk factors of plantar fasciitis. The most widely reported clinical sign of plantar fasciitis as said by Wearing et al., (2006) is pain localised to the medial tubercle of the calcaneus. Characteristically, the pain is exacerbated after periods of nonweightbearing. The pain decreases after few minutes of initial weightbearing but returns and get worst when time on feet increases (Singh et al., 1997; Thomas et al., 2001; Schepsis, Leach and Gorzyca, 1991). Various interventions used for plantar fasciitis: In general, plantar fasciitis is a self-limiting condition. Unfortunately, the period until resolution is frequently six to 18 months, which can direct to frustration for patients and physicians. Rest was cited by 25 percent of patients with plantar fasciitis in one study as the treatment that worked best (Wolgin, Cook, Mauldin, Graham 1994). It is equally important to correct the troubles that place individuals at risk for plantar fasciitis, such as increased amount of weight-bearing activity, increased intensity of movement, hard walking/running surfaces and worn shoes. Early recognition and treatment usually direct to a shorter course of treatment as well as improved probability of success with conservative treatment measures (Martin, Irrgang, Conti 1998, Reid 1992). Various treatment strategies, including orthoses (Kwong et al. 1988, Gross et al. 1984, Goulet et al. 2002, Lynch et al. 1988), stretching (Probe et al. 1999, Powell et al. 1998, DiGiovanni et al. 2003, Chandler et al. 1993, Barry et al. 2002), taping (Lynch et al. 1988, Scranton et al. 1982), extracorporeal shock wave therapy (Boddeker et al. 2001, Buchbinder et al. 2002), laser therapy (Basford et al. 1998) and drug therapy in the appearance of systemic medication (Probe et al. 1999), percutaneous injection (Cunnane et al. 1996, Kamel et al. 2000, Kane et al. 1998) and topical application (Gudeman et al. 1997, Japour et al. 1999) have been investigated and have revealed variable clinical benefit. In the recovery phase of rehabilitation, the objective is to decrease stress on the plantar fascia (J M.). Orthotic shoe inserts are thought to give stress relief and hold the plantar fascia, but a review of several studies found them to be unconvincing and contradictory due to methodology, small study size, or lack of long-term follow-up. There are many conservative treatments which can give better relief such as: Icing: Ice massage for over 15 minutes for three times a day can give better results and decrease the inflammation. Stretching Heel lifts Supportive shoes Weight loss Taping Orthotics: Devices such as rubber heel cups, elastic heel inserts can provide relief for plantar fasciitis. Night splints: Splints can provide relieve from plantar fasciitis, but it usually takes more than 12 weeks. Taping: The purpose of taping the foot is to change the mechanical load toward the fascial enthesis. Several studies done by Lange, Chipchase, Evans, (2004); Vicenzino et al., 2005; Radford et al., 2006) have reported that antipronation tape change the longitudinal arch height and decrease pressure in the heel which are clinically relevant in patients with plantar fasciitis. Taping can be done in many methods but i am more interested in low-dye taping as it is widely used and so i will be discussing about that technique in detail. LOW-DYE TAPING: Low-dye taping is an orthopaedic/sports adhesive strapping technique first described by Dye (1939) and later modified by a number of authors (Boergers, 2000; Del et al., 2004; Lange, Chipchase, Evans, 2004; Russo, Chipchase, 2001). Low-Dye taping is designed to off-load the plantar fascia. It is a short term treatment and its off-loading effects vary from patient to patient. However, as a general rule leave the tape on for a maximum of 3 days, but some might find it needs to be replaced more frequently in order remain effective. If at anytime the tape is uncomfortable, irritates, causes itching or pins and needles it should be removed immediately. The taping aims to limit foot pronation and is used in the short-term to reduce the symptoms of disorders thought to be related to excessive foot pronation which includes plantar fasciitis, tibialis posterior dysfunction, and patellofemoral syndrome (Schulthies, Draper, 1995; Whitesel, Newell, 1980). The taping required is a 1 inch zinc oxide (rigid strapping), most chemist should stock it. Another place to access it is from www.simplyfeet.co.uk, look under strapping and for Leukoplast (2.5cm), its costs approximately  £2.70p per roll (which should last for 3-4 applications) How to apply the taping 1. The first taping is applied down the outer and inner border of the foot, repeat 3-4 times. Apply enough tension to avoid the tape wrinkling, it needs to be no tighter. 2. The second taping is applied across the underside of the foot-starting level with the ankle, apply the tape across the foot from the outside to the inside. Over lap the each strap slightly and keep going until just before reaching the ball of the foot. 3. The final taping is a securing tape-apply a piece of tape across the midfoot, at about where the second taping ends, apply across the top of the foot, but do not encircle the whole foot, as this will be too tight. 4. Initially the tape will feel slightly tight, but this should ease, if it feels uncomfortable at all-remove immediately. Effects of Low-Dye taping: Offers support for the medial longitudinal arch and reduces pronation (inward rolling of the foot). Can be used for any condition affected by excessive pronation Plantar fasciitis, Tibialis Posterior Tendonopathy/Dysfunction, Sinus tarsi syndrome. Limitation of taping: One restriction of long term taping is that there is danger for skin breakdown. So therefore it may be considered only as a short term management option. Literature review: For writing the literature review, the following databases and books were searched. There was a detailed search on internet which gave a lot of information about plantar fasciitis. Some information was gathered from books and journals as well. Some of the journals were available online while rest of them had to be purchased from library. Some of the books were available online as well. The following databases had been searched for writing this literature review: Medline AMED CINAHL ClinPSYC EMBASE PsycINFO PEDRO. The following information was gathered from all the sources taking account of the review question. The proximal insertional disorder of the plantar fascia is best known as plantar fasciitis and as per Lemont, Ammirati and Usen in (2003), histopathologic research has found no signs of inflammation but has reported degenerative changes in the plantar fascia. The prevalence of plantar fasciitis has not been studied (Riddle Scappert 2004), but it is estimated that it affects 10 percent of the general population at some time during life (Demaio et al., 1993). PF is considered a self-limiting condition, however, the typical resolution time is anywhere from 6-18 months, sometimes longer (Young, Rutherford, Niedfeldt 2001) which can lead to frustration on both that is the physician and patient. Most experts agree that early recognition and treatment of PF leads to a shorter course of treatment and greater probability of success with conservative therapies (Singh, Angel, Bcntk, Trevino 1997). Of the many treatment options available for PF, one of the most effective is also the most fundamental rest and avoidance of aggravating activity provides significant relief. One study cited rest as the treatment that worked best for 25percent of PF patients (Wolgin, Cook, Graham, Mauldin, 1994). Martin et al. 2001 compared custom orthoses, over-the-counter arch supports, and tension night splints in the management of plantar fasciitis. Lynch et al. compared anti-inflammatory therapy, accommodative therapy and mechanical therapy in the management of pla ntar fasciitis. There are several conservative treatments that are employed to manage this condition. Scientists at the University of Bridgeport Chiropractic College in Calgary, Alberta, conducted an comprehensive review of the literature from 1980 to March 2005 on the management of plantar fasciitis. They concluded that due to numerous methodological flaws, none of the 15 randomised controlled trials showed finally which conservative treatment modality was best for plantar fasciitis (JCCA, 2006). Contrast baths, in which the application of cold and heat to a wounded area is alternated, are widely believed to reduce oedema (tissue swelling) and relieve uneasiness following an injury (Sullivan and Anderson 2000). A hunt of the scientific literature on this topic using Medline uncovered just two articles in this area, and one of the articles was unreliable in nature, with no rigorous, controlled testing of the efficacy of contrast baths. The other journal article listed research carri ed out at the University of North Carolina in which 30 subjects with post-acute sprained ankles were assigned to either a cold (n = 10), heat (n = 10), or contrast-bath (n = 10) treatment group (Comparison of Three Treatment Procedures for Minimizing Ankle Sprain Swelling, Physical Therapy, Vol 68 (7), pp1072-1076, 1988). Volumetric measurements of the subjects ankles were completed in a specially constructed tank, prior to and after treatment. An increase in the measure of oedema was actually observed with all three treatments, but cold application was connected with the least measure of swelling; contrast baths were no better than the direct application of heat when it came to controlling swelling. This study is somewhat faulty, since there were no control individuals with whom the persons utilizing a variety of treatments could be compared. Nonetheless, the research suggests that there is nothing particularly beneficial about contrast baths (especially when compared with the appl ication of nothing but cold) in the management of sprained ankles or oedema in common. Interestingly enough, there also does not show to be a single study in the scientific literature involving contrast baths with quicker recovery from injury or with a considerable decrease in pain associated with an injury. Compression is thought to be valuable in this phase through taping of the foot (Anderson 2000). Scherer and the Biomechanics Graduate Research Group in 1998 performed a prospective study in which they treated 73 patients with 118 painful heels with taping, nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs, injections, and rigid orthoses (98% received these orthoses). The study showed that, within 6 weeks, approximately 84% of the patients had at least 80% relief of symptoms. This study also identified a subgroup of 43 heels (27patients) that received only mechanical therapy with taping or orthoses. Of this group, 90% had more than 80% relief of symptoms. The author concluded that mechanical control of midtarsal joint was the most successful treatment modality for plantar fasciitis. In an attempt to measure the effects of Low-Dye taping on the foot, eight patients (nine feet) with plantar fasciitis were studied using the pedobarograph to investigate changes in gait patterns. In addition, patients completed a questionnaire to assess symptom improvement. Significant changes between the untaped and taped foot were found in respect of pressure levels, areas under the pressure time curves and temporal parameters. The questionnaire revealed subjective improvements in symptoms in eight out of the nine feet studied (Saxelby, Betts and Bygrave 2004). The results from this nonrandomised trial indicate that this technique may be helpful for pain associated with plantar fasciitis. This article reveals that taping technique can improve gait to some extent. The best method to avoid plantar fasciitis is to minimise your risk factors. Follow the guidelines outlined above for selecting suitable and well-constructed shoes. Progress training schedules properly and works in new environments gradually. Keep your calf muscles physically powerful. Although plantar fasciitis is a prevalent problem, little scientific evidence exists concerning the most appropriate intervention (Crawford, Atkins, Edwards 2002 ). In the book by Rose Macdonald (2009), named Pocketbook of Taping Techniques By Rose Macdonald, Functional taping is now acknowledged as a skill which is essential for those concerned in the treatment and rehabilitation of sports injuries and many other conditions such as muscle imbalances, unstable joints and neural control. It incorporates all the basic techniques essential to the practice of good taping but also includes chapters on new evidence-based procedures written by experts from around the world. To assist in the development of these techniques, this pocketbook demonstrates many new methods which may be used as indicated or customized to suit the clinical situation. The Key Features in the book are Structured by body region with highly-illustrated descriptions of significant taping techniques Covers all aspects of functional taping New techniques to modify muscle activity and proprioception based on scientific evidence. Handy, portable size for simple reference in the field. Well there are few papers (Saxelby et al., 1997; Radford et al., 2006; Osborne and Allison, 2006; Landorf et al., 2005) published in the journals which say that low-dye taping has been effective in the management of plantar fasciitis. We will discuss about the papers in detail in the later part of the review. A systematic review conducted by Radford et al., in (2006) of randomised controlled trials examined the result of low-dye taping on biomechanical variables. According to Kogler et al. (1999), the supportive tape reduces the symptoms of plantar heel pain by reducing strain in the plantar fascia during standing and ambulation. A study conducted by Nolan and Kennedy in 2009 aimed to determine the special effects of Low-Dye taping on peak plantar pressure immediately post-application and found that Low-Dye tapes initially reduced lateral forefoot peak plantar pressure after a 10-minute walk. However, the tape continued to have an effect on the medial forefoot after 20 minutes of exercise. Chapter 2: Now we will be discussing about the systematic review methodology in this chapter The basis for a systematic review: According to Altmann (1999), Systematic reviews, in healthcare, have been described as providing objective overviews of all the evidence currently available on a particular topic of interest. Such overviews cover clinical trials in order to establish where effects of healthcare are consistent and where they may vary. This is achieved through the use of explicit, systematic methods aimed at limiting systematic error (bias) and reducing the chance of effect (Higgins and Green 2006). So systematic review are useful to decide which treatment in health care is more effective. Methodology: Systematic literature reviews are a method of making sense of large bodies of information, and a means of contributing to the answers to questions about what works and what does not- and many other types of question too (Petticrew and Roberts 2006). They are a method of mapping out areas of uncertainty, and identifying where little or no relevant research has been done, but where new studies are needed. Systematic reviews are literature reviews that remain closely to a set of scientific methods that explicitly aim to limit systematic error (bias), mainly by attempting to identify, appraise and synthesize all relevant studies in order to answer a particular question. Definition of systematic review: A review that strives to comprehensive identify, appraise, and synthesize all the significant studies on a specified topic. Systematic reviews are often used to test just a single hypothesis, or a series of related hypotheses (Petticrew and Roberts 2006). Systematic reviews provide information about the effectiveness of interventions by identifying, appraising, and summarising the results of otherwise unmanageable quantities of research (Light and Pillemer 1984, Mulrow 1994). A review of the evidence on a obviously formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant primary research, and to remove and analyse data from the studies that are incorporated in the review. Statistical methods (meta-analysis) may or may not be used. Systematic reviews are defined, according to the Cochrane collaboration, as scientific literature reviews aimed at answering clearly formulated questions by use of systematic and explicit methods for identifying, selecting, and critically appraising relevant research, and for collecting and analysing data from the literature included in the review (The Cochrane collaboration. During a systematic review, meta-analysis may be used as a statistical tool for analysing and summarising the results of the included studies (Green and Higgins 2005). In order to fulfil this function, a systematic review should: (i) present a synthesis of the acquired knowledge regarding one particular clinical question derived from all relevant studies that are identifiable at one point in time, (ii) identify the level of internal validity and the subsequent potential systematic error risk associated with the acquired knowledge and (iii) provide recommendations for improving any identified shortcoming related to internal validity, for further research. Owing to continued further research, systematic reviews should also provide continued updates of their synthesis. Why do a systematic review? A rationale: Single studies can usefully be seen as similar to single respondents in a survey. The results from one respondent may say something, and sometimes something very important, but one might well get the opposite answer from the next respondent. It is more likely that one will learn more by examining data from other respondents, by looking at the range of answers and examining why those answers vary, and by attempting to summarize them (Petticrew and Roberts 2006). Literature reviews are also, in essence surveys, and it is worth remembering that they share very similar biases with other forms of social surveys. History of systematic review: From the 1930s onwards, and possibly even before, the specific term systematic review was being used to refer to literature reviews (Petticrew and Roberts 2006). In short, contrary to what is commonly supposed, neither the term systematic review nor the general approach of systematic literature reviewing is particularly new, nor particularly biomedical. Many systematic reviews involve a statistical pooling of the findings of the primary studies. This approach, meta-analysis, probably derives in its current form from Glass and Smiths work, which began in the late 1970s (Glass and Smith 1978). Systematic Review Process: Scoping review: A scoping review involves a search of the literature to determine what sorts of studies addressing the systematic review question have been carried out, where they are published, in which databases they have been indexed, what sorts of outcomes they have assessed, and in which populations (Petticrew and Roberts 2006). It may include restricted searches across a limited number of key databases, limited to a certain time period, and perhaps restricted by language. This can help cost a review for the purpose of drawing up a funding proposal, and can help with estimating how long it is likely to take, and what mix of skills might be needed to carry it out. From the below systematic review on effectiveness of low dye taping in the management of plantar fasciitis we can see that one relevant study has been found which involves effectiveness of taping in the management of plantar fasciitis but that differs from the current systematic review as it did not involve low dye taping which is the key factor of the undergoing review and this review is based on only effectiveness of low dye taping and not taping in broader context. Chapter 3: Role of the protocol: The protocol will specifies the plan which the review will follow to identify, appraise and collate evidence (Cook, Sackett and Spitzer 1995). The first milestone of any review is the development and approval of the protocol before proceeding

How can Malaysia get out of the middle income trap?

How can Malaysia get out of the middle income trap? Malaysia is caught in the middle trap right now and getting it out is going to be tough. With an income that is not too high and not low, Malaysian find it hard to reach a higher level of income. To really get out from the middle income trap, Malaysia needs to change what it has been doing economically for the past 40 years. Middle income trap concept refers to an easy transition of a low income to a middle income economy due to its competitive nature in terms of cheap wages and labour- intensive industries. It is easy to transit from low income to middle income but it will be hard to transit from middle income to high income due to several factors. Malaysia is getting into middle income trap and is likely to experience a small change in factor- price ratio. This means that wages received by both skilled and unskilled labour does not increase a lot and doesnt reach high income level. In our research paper, we will divide into the four main parts. First, we discuss the background of Malaysias economy and then the factors which lead Malaysia to fall into the middle income trap, in this part we find out that there are about six factors which lead Malaysia into the trap. After that, we discuss on people who are affected due to the middle income trap. Lastly, ways or method to escape from the middle income trap is also our main concern. We have some ways to implement to make developing nations can graduate into becoming fully advanced economies. When we look at our economic background, we can clearly see that from independence to the 1980s, Malaysia progressed rapidly. From an agricultural society in the 1950s, it evolved into an Asian Tiger Economy by the 1980s, mainly labour- intensive industrialisation. However, subsequent effort in deepen our industrialisation make our economic to remain stagnant while other countries continue to expand rapidly. Recently, countrys performance has been disappointing with GDP growth rate declining to 5.5 percent in 2002 to 2008 from 9.1 percent in 1990-1997. In the past 1970, about 50% of Malaysian live in absolute poverty but now decrease to less than 4%. However, Malaysian feels that they are stuck from increasing where GDP growth has slowed up. However, when we look at other countries for example Korea, they are at one time the poorest country in the world but they are growing both economic and politic. Reason that their economic can grow is because they have higher purchasing power compared to Malaysia. This is because they receive averagely higher income and with higher income they will have more spending power which will boost their economy. Countries such as Cambodia and Vietnam have very low wages while Malaysia traps in the middle ground. How to get into middle income trap One of the factors Malaysia trapped into the middle income is due to over dependence on FDI and lack of doing research and development (RD). Multinational companies will only provide instant of capital, expertise and technology into Malaysia but they will not develop or improving Malaysias product. Malaysias businessmen seem to be satisfied in making profit by serving the MNCs and maintaining their original, assembly- based business models. Besides, labour productivity is growing quite slow than in the 1990s. Manufacturing in Malaysia has a low value added and had spent a very low RD spending. For example, Malaysia had spent only 0.6% of GDP in RD compared to South Korea which is 3.5%. South Korea is probably the best example of a developing country which shifts to a advance country. Companies in Korea like Samsung and LG dominates in the market. Taiwan is also not far behind. Chinas policymakers are aware that they need to suit with the changes in market if the labor costs rise. With a low tech manufacturing industries and lack of skilled labour compared to country such as Singapore, the production in Malaysia is less competitive and thus less profit which means lower wages paid to the workers. Migrant workers which depress wages also one of the factors which cause Malaysia to fall into the middle income trap. It is a mistake in letting migrant workers to overflow in Malaysia and depresses wages. This will limit the improvements of the productivity. Malaysia has too huge amount of foreign workers which is reportedly has 1.9 million registered workers and another 600000 unregistered ones accounting for nearly one- fifth of the working population. These workers are not confined to the so- called 3D jobs where the jobs are difficult, dirty and dangerous that the locals are unwilling to do those kinds of jobs. Too many of unskilled labour will lead to low value added in the productivity. Malaysian worker are forced to receive low wages since competition with the migrant workers are keen because the migrant workers are willing to accept lower wages and longer hours of working. Besides, when we take account the negative externalities which associates with the excessive presence o f migrant workers, we found that migrant worker is a burden to Malaysias economy as the migrant workforce turns out to be a costly affair. There are cases where the migrant workers cause social problem in Malaysia and there were also cases where the migrant workers are abused by their employer. They are also forced to receive low wages since there is no law to protect their rights. It is not denied that Malaysia needs the services of foreign workers, both skilled and unskilled but government need to ensure that they are well treated and wages should be increased align to the local wages so that Malaysian wages can be raised higher. In the case of Malaysia, high wage need not mean high labour costs if an increase of wages are backed by an increase in productivity. In the other words, low wages does not mean lower labour costs if the productivity declines. Apart from that, over subsidies of the subsidised item leads to middle income trap. Subsidy was implemented in 1961 under the Control Act 1961 and subsidised items include petrol, sugar, gas, rice, salt and other basic items. Subsidy of these items has made the Government spending to increase and it is too heavy for government to continue to bear the cost. For example, the oil price in 1970s was under US$12 per barrel. However, it increases to almost US$75 per barrel which causes a cost that is unbearable to the government. Moreover, over subsidies in local industries for example proton is a burden to the government spending. If compared to South Korea, such industry had do the same thing in the beginning but they were weaned off from the government subsidy much earlier and where Proton is still now subsidised. The high cost of subsidies restrains the government ability to upgrade infrastructures and involve in more research and development which increase the productivity and competi tiveness in order to become a high income country. Price control has been one of the major causes of falling into middle income trap. The policy where government enforced price control in Malaya to avoid hardships after World war2 holds until today. Price control items include basic necessities such as rice, flour, sugar, milk and even taxi fares. Price of commodities in Malaysia is much cheaper because of the controls compared to other countries. The problem with the price control is that workers annual pay raises are linked to the nations CPI which is consumer price index. This mean that with a low CPI, the salary received by the worker remain low and a shift to a higher income will be very hard. Since 1980s, Malaysian wages have fallen behind wages of the rest of the world. For an example, a graduate policeman earn at RM 2300 per month compared to RM4400 in Singapore. Apart from restraining Malaysian wages, price controls also sternly distort domestic economic factor proportions which cause many factories ending up in inefficient economic production processes. When we compared through GDP, South Korea has a GDP per capita of US$16450, Singapore US$34,346, while Malaysia still remain at US$7469. The table below shows that the breakdown weightage allocated for the different categories of items consumed on a daily basis. For example, Food and non- alcoholic beverages and Housing, water, electricity, gas and fuels make up over 52.8% of the weightage. We can see that most of the items are heavily subsidised or price controlled. Apart from the raw materials, value added items such cooked food and beverages are always levied at the market price but not captured in the CPI. Besides, transport which contribute 15.9% of the weightage does not include hire purchase for cars and motorcycle or the cost of imported spare part for repairing. Some construction materials such cement and clinker maybe price controlled but for certain price of rental are determined at market rate. http://greglopez.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/n5-1.jpg?w=300 Low inflation rate causes wages to be artificially suppressed and it creates a wide gap between Malaysian working domestically and those workers who work abroad. With low wages, we will be unable to attract talent from other countries even though our product and services are relatively cheaper. Moreover, low or middle income creates a technology gap making Malaysia to be uncompetitive. Technology goods and services have become more expensive for Malaysian to purchase including items such as Iphone, laptop which it is common nowadays. With a cheap currency, we find it difficult to purchase the most advanced technology to improve productivity. Malaysia was emphasizing on agriculture sector in the early 1950s but when Malaysias economic had shift from agriculture sector to manufacturing sector, agriculture sector had became a drag to the economy. The dominance of oil palm and rubber in the agriculture sector is unfortunately a significant drag and had caused the nations to cease from shifting to a high income economy. Those plantation terrain, paddy harvesting and rubber tapping are not easily mechanised and remaining done by manual. Agriculture sector with high technology and mechanised makes more profit by having much efficient and more productivity. Until today, agriculture with manual worker still remain as low wage activities and most of the agriculture depend a lot on foreign labour. For example, textile industry hires most of the workers from Bangladesh since the local workers are not willing to work in this sector because of the low wages. The mobility of the foreign workers in plantation is also easy and they move from estates to factories which mean it is hard for government to disallow the foreign workers to work in the non- plantation sector. The cumulative effect is that there are now about 2.3 million low- skill foreign workers in Malaysia, making up about 20% of the workforce. They are in the manufacturing, petroleum, construction and domestic- help sectors. Lately, they are also involving in retailing, food and beverage, tourism and hotel industries. Such a massive inflow of foreign workers into those industries will therefore suppress wages in Malaysia and causes middle income trap. Effects of the Middle Income Trap Malaysias caught in the middle-income trap right now give awareness to our policymakers that the export-led growth strategy, according to some, is no longer an optimal development strategy for developing countries especially Malaysia. Continued emphasis on export-led growth will, among other things, increase the reliance of developing countries on the developed world and dampen domestic market growth. Many export-dependent developing countries started tweaking their growth strategies especially after external demand for their exports dried up on account of the current global financial and economic crisis. Though Malaysias growth strategy had started emphasizing domestic demand since about a decade back, it still remains largely dependent on external demand for its economic growth (Quah, 2009). Ex-World Bank chief economist and Brookings Institutions Wolfensohn Centre for Development, Global Economy and Developments senior fellow, Homi J. Kharas, said there was an impetus for change a nd rethinking on policies and strategies in Malaysia every 10 years based on economic developments. Malaysia has been very successful as an exporting nation but has also been very export dependent. About 90% (of products) are being exported to the United States, Europe and Japan, he said, adding that Malaysia needed to diversify its exports (Malaysia needs to be high-income economy, 2009). However, the main challenge is domestic market of Malaysia is too limited due to only 28 million of populations. Thats why we are facing the dilemma of the exploration of external and domestic market. However, 2010 GDP performance sets strong momentum for a robust 2011. Given the marked improvement in economic growth in the first half of the year, domestic demand was clearly the chief momentum driver for the recovery. Moving forward, the country is anticipated to register a robust GDP growth of 5.6% in 2011, with domestic demand once again acting as the back-bone for momentum (RAM Rating Services, 2011). Besides, middle-income trap also lead to declining private investments. The old growth model provided three decades of outstanding performance, permitting Malaysia to provide for the health and education of its people, largely eradicate poverty, build a world-class infrastructure and become a major exporter globally. But the progress we have made over the past half-century has slowed and economic growth prospects have weakened considerably. We are caught in a middle income trap. Malaysia has been susceptible to external shocks, as seen during the past crises. Increases in international commodity prices, like fuel or food, have direct impact on domestic prices. Similarly, unless production costs and productivity in Malaysia can keep pace with those abroad, exports are likely to lose ground with negative effects on national employment and income. Malaysias economic engine is slowing. Since the Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998, Malaysias position as an economic leader in the region has steadily eroded. Growth has been lower than other crisis affected countries, while investment has not recovered. Private investors have taken a back seat. Since the Asian crisis, aggregate investment as a share of GDP in Malaysia has continued to decline, with private investment remaining stagnant due to several factors. In some industries, heavy government and government linked company (GLC) presence has discouraged private investment. Cumbersome and lengthy bureaucratic procedures have affected both the cost of investing, and the potential returns on investment. Malaysias place within the Global Competitiveness Index dropped to 24th in the 2010 report from 21st previously, indicating that the country is losing its attractiveness as an investment destination (New Economic Model For Malaysia, 2010) A plunge in exports wounded this trade-sensitive economy in 2009. The impact of weak exports spread to private investment, which fell sharply, and to private consumption, which was nearly flat. Fiscal stimulation packages provided some buffer for aggregate demand. Economic growth will rebound during the forecast period, underpinned by a recovery in exports and rising incomes. Annual inflation is set to pick up from low levels. The government plans renewed efforts to encourage private investment. Fixed investment fell sharply by 5.5%, with many firms cancel ling or deferring investment decisions. Investment acted as the major drag on GDP in 2009. The ringgit, having depreciated by 5.0% against the dollar during the first 3 months of 2009, when increased risk aversion and deleveraging activities by international investors increased the demand for dollars has since appreciated. Economic growth, while impressive, has slowed and private investment, averaging about 30% of GDP just before t he Asian financial crisis, has fallen to around 9.5% of GDP. These indicators point to the need to address deficiencies in the investment climate and to reappraise the role of public sector companies that compete with the private sector. (Rajapakse, 2010) Other than that, the effect of middle-income trap include lack of appropriately skilled human capital caused by brain drainA graduate teacher starts at RM2,500 per month in Malaysia, compared to RM6,196 in Singapore and RM15,661 in Hong Kong. Malaysian wages have fallen behind partly due to the gross divergence between the suppressed Malaysian CPI and that of the world (FONG, 2010). Globalization, outsourcing, offshoring and business process outsourcing gave rise to mobility of resources, investment, companies and skilled workers. Skilled workers flow to locations where they are paid higher and companies move to locations that are more competitive. Many skilled Malaysian workers have been leaving the country, lured by higher pay (Altfa, 2011). Many Malaysians could be found working overseas as they were often adaptable, multi-lingual and inexpensive. In terms of composition of the economy for most developed countries, more than 60% of annual gross domestic product (GDP) came from the services sector, with Malaysia somewhere just over 50%. Deputy director in the Public Private Partnership Centre and Secretariat to the Economic Council of the Economic Planning Unit Dr Soh Chee Seng said: Our productivity levels are not really low, it is just that they are falling behind other rapidly developing countries like China, India, Indonesia and Thailand: According to HSBC Bank Bhd executive director Jon Addis the countrys infrastructure was still patchy such as in terms of public transit, which had some idiosyncrasies. (Min) Malaysia stuck in middle income trap will lead to bring to affect of low value added industries. According to Wikepedia, value added  can be refers to extra features of an item of interest for example product, service, person and etc that go beyond the standard expectations and provide something more while adding little or nothing to its cost. Value-added features give competitive edges to companies with otherwise more expensive products. (Wikipedia) In Malaysia, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have evolved to become a key suppliers and service providers to large corporations, inclusive of Multinational Corporation and Transnational Corporation (MNCs TNCs). SMEs contributed to expanding output, providing the value added activities in the manufacturing sector, creating employment opportunities, contributing to broadening Malaysia export based. Our Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak has urged SMEs to adopt technology as a core part of their business strategy to gain a sus tainable competitive edge. He said that the SME community in Malaysia was not adopting technology as rapidly as it should. (Adopt new technology, Najib urges SMEs, 2011) For this point, SMI Association of Malaysia president Chua Tiam Wee urged the government should concern about the problem faced by SMEs, such as securing adequate financing at competitive rates for new start-ups, the issue of frequent policy changes in employing foreign workers to overcome shortage, and also the problems in dealing with government agencies to acquire halal certification and other licences. (Mustaza, 2011) Besides that, there are many factors have contributed to the countrys slower growth over the past year among them to caused less invest from FDIs to Malaysia, we are loss of comparative advantage with other emerging economics such as India, Vietnam and China which being supplanted as a low-cost export and services based. (The Middle Income Trap, 2010) Another effect of the middle income trap is that Malaysia providing a low skilled jobs and low wages to attract foreign worker migrant into our countries. To become one of the high income countries, mean that the income of an individual is high. The main goals of the New Economics Model(NEM) are that Malaysia will toward become a high income country with target of US$15,000 until 20,000 per capital by 2020. But now Malaysia stuck in the middle income trap because there are not enough high wages job created in Malaysia. Normally, high wages are often related to the high skilled worker. In fact the share of skilled labour has declined across industries. The figure as shown as below shown that the use of high skilled labour for differences industries for 2002 and 2007. The EE as one of the largest industries contribute in GDP of Malaysia. From the diagram, the use of high skilled labour in EE was declined from 54% to 46%. The regional competition did lead to some minor transformation over the years. Although the manufacturing sector in Malaysia was grew rapidly, but that is resulting shortage of Malaysian workers with higher wages. Therefore, the foreign labours are welcome to Malaysia to fill the gap. So the companies could enjoy low wages and production costs to comfortable profit. The skilled labour force is also linked to education. The labour force with tertiary education for advanced countries is usually high, so many skilled Malaysian worker will leaving the country to pursue a higher pay. The central themes of the 10th Malaysia Plan (10MP) is encapsulated in 10 Big Ideas, says the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) of the Prime Ministers Department. These 10 Big Ideas, if vigorously and consistently implemented would see Malaysia through the challenging times and enable the nation to be a high-income and developed nation by 2020, said the Unit under the Prime Ministers Department. (10MP Encapsulates In 10 Big Ideas, Says EPU, 2010) One of the ideas of the Tenth Big Ideas is to unleashing productivity-led growth and innovation. Malaysia stuck in the middle income trap will cause lacking in talent and innovation to do so. Malaysian graduates tend to more interested to work in abroad because they offered a high income from the other countries. As they leaving from Malaysia, it will lose the skilled talent needed to make innovation to develop the country. Therefore, Malaysia lack of holistic approach and systematic assessment of innovation. Besides that, the growth model eventu ally runs out of steam. As the incomes increase, so the costs also have to be concern. The low-tech manufacturing industry was undermining the competitiveness. Therefore, Malaysia tend to move up the value chain, into exports of more technologically advanced products, like electronics. The economy has to innovate and use labor and capital more productively. To get to become a high income country, the economy needs to do more than just make stuff by throwing people and money into factories. That requires an entirely different way of doing business. Companies must invest more heavily in RD on their own and employ highly educated and skilled workers to turn those investments into new products and profits. (DAN, 2010) Based on the effects of middle-income trap stated above, we strongly suggest that government has to consider thoroughly before Goods and Services Tax (GST) is imposed. . Such a plan has pros and cons and serious implications and has to be thoroughly studied and extensive consultation made before a final decision is made. Public consultation on this policy that would have great impact on the Malaysian economy and investment is seen as vigorous enough that would have an impact on poorer Malaysians and the government coffers (Altfa, Minimum wage policy can hurt manufacturers competitiveness, 2011). GST wills worsening the poverty condition in Malaysia as well as deteriorates the private consumption in economy. The ripple impacts of GST will deepen the situation of middle-income trap in our country. WAYS TO GET OUT OF MIDDLE INCOME TRAP Brain drain refers to significant emigration of educated and talent individuals to another country. Malaysia being criticised for mismanaging its talent human resources as skilled and talent Malaysian moved to countries whom provide better earnings [1]. The problem grew serious as the statistics of brain drain increasing dramatically. Federal Government stated that between the beginning of 2008 and August 2009, slightly more than 300,000 Malaysians migrated to overseas. It is estimated that in 2009 there were over 700,000 Malaysians living abroad, with up to two-thirds of them are professionals workers. Therefore it effects the economic transformation of our country from a low to a high value-added economy. Therefore to curb brain drain problem, a new Talent Corporation will be formed to find out and deliver top talent from overseas and locally that are beneficial to stimulate economic sectors. The Government will attract Malaysians currently living and working in other countries to return Malaysia in order to build their careers in Malaysia. According to the Minister in the Prime Ministers Department, Tan Sri Nor Mohd Yaacob, this corporation hopes to draw back at least 70,000 Malaysians from overseas over the next 10 years by offering a package of very attractive incentives [2]. Strategies were taken to succeed the talent corporation plan. Three areas have been identified in 10th Malaysian Plan including soft infrastructure investment such as skills development, providing enablers to support concentrated industrial clusters and specialisation and increasing Research Development and venture capital funding [1]. Government scholarships especially Public Service Department scholarship will be given to top students from around the world to further their studies in Malaysia whom later will be encouraged to contribute to the Malaysian talent pool [1]. The civil service will increase its focus on hiring high-caliber young talent and will offer 60,000 scholarships to students in local and foreign universities [1]. Moreover, under the 10MP open visas will be offered to highly-skilled foreign professionals and there will be no time limit on visas for skilled foreign workers whom earns more than RM8, 000 per month [1]. Despite that, living conditions will also be improved in order to attract more world-class talent to make their homes in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur will be set as a city for people seeking quality and diverse lifestyles, in close proximity to nature, cultural richness and excellent infrastructure [1]. Therefore Talent Corporation able to draw back Malaysian talented workforce to stimulate economy of Malaysia and indirectly could help Malaysia get out of middle income trap. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) plays a significant role in Malaysias economic development. In the 14th century, Malacca had attracted FDIs in services because of its strategic location in the Straits of Malacca [3]. First, FDI has provided an additional source of capital which directly helps host country to expand their production activities and thereby generate more profit.   The profits can be used for the purpose of making contributions to the revenues of corporate taxes of the  recipient  country [4].  FDI assists in increasing the income that is generated through  revenues  realized through taxation [4]. [1] Lee Wee Lian (2010) The Malaysian Insider: Najib bets on move from hardware to software. [2] Malaysian Today online news (2010): Attracting talents back through the Talent Corporation [3] 2010 Foreign Direct Investment vs Domestic Investment. New Straits Times. FDI allows the transfer of technologies. In general, FDI provides the fastest and most effective way to deploy new technologies in developing host countries (UNCTAD 2000). Innovative technologies can help not only increase returns to investment but also improve productivity [4]. FDI also promoted exports and trade. Without foreign capital, Malaysia might not have experienced rapid increase in their exports. Exports have been the main engine of economic growth, especially for Malaysia, where it moved from mainly primary goods exporters to major exporters of manufactured goods. The shift in exports reflects the structural transformation of Malaysia from being agriculture-based to industry-based. Meanwhile, the countries that get FDI from another country can also develop the human capital resources by getting their employees to receive training and learn extra skills on the operations of a particular business. FDI can significantly relevant to boost economy. Therefore, we have to create more opportunities for major investors to invest in the domestic economy as FDI able to help Malaysia get out from the middle income trap. Malaysia will focus and worked out more to strengthen its investment attraction activities to attract both the domestic and foreign investment required. As a beginning, corporatization and empowerment of MIDA announced in the Tenth Malaysia Plan and the expansion of its scope to cover domestic investment [5]. There are two categories of investor attraction. First, targeted outreach to potential investors and secondly, partners as well as broader-marketing campaigns [5]. A Roadmap for Malaysia Targeted outreach activities include identifying and negotiating with specific investors to participate in identified projects will be conducted [5]. [4] Economy Watch: Benefits of Foreign Direct Investment [5] Chapter 1: New Economy Model of Malaysia: Economic Transformation Programmed Fiscal stimulus packages helped increased the spending on green technologies in many countries. Several countries have focused to technologies that help improve energy efficiency. Recently, statistics shows that only 13 percent of Chinas domestic electricity consumption is provided through cogeneration facilities. Meanwhile, when cogeneration facilities are combined with district heating and cooling (DHc) systems, further synergies can be created. Through implementation of a DHc facility and as well as the size and number of buildings the cost of total capital and investment can be lower than the cost of traditional methods for heating and cooling individual buildings. This energy efficiency significantly reduces carbon emissions. (Article: Escaping the Middle Income Trap) Moreover, some green technologies have ability to reduce poverty or inequality gap. For example, renewable energies such as solar power can facilitate rural electrification, which can help to reduce poverty [6]. Investment to keep green technology efficient could help a country to escape from middle income by reducing poverty and inequality. However, public funds get misallocated or finance white elephant projects, with less contribution to the economy. For example, plenty of Chinas green investments are in wind technology. However, some analysts report shows that a high proportion of Chinas current wind assets might be either not in use or not connected to the national power grid. In other cases, promoted new technologies can be far from the economys comparative advantage or their subsidization can harm competitiveness. In this case, measures that allow the market provide guide when subsidizing or investing in green economy are required. (Article: Escaping Middle Income Trap) [6] World Bank. 2000. Energy Services for the Worlds Poor. Energy And Development Report 2000. ESMAP, World Bank, Washington, Dc. There are many ways to Malaysia be escape from the Middle trap income. One of it is by New Economic Model (NEM). NEM is an economic plan in Malaysia discovered on 30th March, 2010 by Najib Tun Razak, Malaysian Prime Minister. It is intended to more than double the per capita income in Malaysia by 2020. According to Najib, the goal of NEM is to transform the Malaysian economy to become one with high incomes and quality growth. The keys to the plas as described by Najib are high income, sustainability and inclusiveness. For the high income key, there are lifting the real growth rate to an average of 6.5% per annum over the 2011-2020 period. Per capita GDP will rise to about USD 17,700 by 2020 and aggregate demand will have to grow at a robust pace as well. [7] Moreover, the high income key in NEM will unlock the value of in Principles of Learning: Overview of Theories Principles of Learning: Overview of Theories Yesenia Zuniga Learning Principles Telling a child to do something is never an easy thing to do because most of the time they won’t listen to their parents. During the age of four to eight years old the only thing a child wants to do is play and bond with other kids. Parents are affecting a child’s academic performances if the only thing a parent is doing is letting their child play and not having any reading time before they start elementary school. There are three learning principles a parent should use to help their child enjoy to read and enhance their academic performances while in school; classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning is what parents can use to motivate their child to read. Although a child might find reading boring if a parent uses the three learning principles a child can adapt to reading and find their child to have cognitive development. The first learning principle is classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction (Psychology book). Parents are going to learn the best method to link two stimuli and help their child learn that reading is a wonderful pastime. During classical conditioning parents are going to have to learn also how to identify the following; neutral stimuli (NS), unconditioned response (UR), unconditional stimuli (US), conditioned response (CR), and conditioned stimulus (CS). Many parents may think how do I know that classical conditioning works? An example of classical conditioning is the experiment of â€Å"Little Albert† led by John B. Watson, during this experiment little Albert had no fear of anything. When he was presented a rat he had no fear, when little Albert heard the noise of the steel bar hit with a hammer he would start crying, after when they combined the rat and the hammer hit the steel bar little Albert became afraid of the rat. The US, was the loud noise, the UR, was the fear response, the NS was the rat before it was paired with the noise, the CS was the rat after pairing; the CR was fear (psychology book pg.247). A classical conditioning strategy a parent could use for their child is for the parent to create a child’s library room in their home, in the wall they could have a painting of their child’s favorite cartoons character reading, have classical music while the child is reading, and also have a comfortable sofa. A child will see that when he or she starts reading is a place they could escape to, is somewhere they could be comfortable and relax and through time the child would think of reading is something peaceful, delighted, and a de-stress zone. In this case the US will be the painting of the cartoon, the UR is listening to the music while the child is reading, the NS is the book, after condition the CS would be the book the child is reading and the CR is the child actually enjoying reading a book. There are many strategies one can use but this would be the best, for a child to want to hear and learn how to read but a parent has to make it fun for them. Making it fun for the child to read is important because if it is fun then the child will find it amusing. The second learning principle is operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is changing behavior choices in response to consequences (Psychology book). During operant conditioning a parent can use a positive or a negative reinforcement. A parent should use both reinforcement and the parent is going to use fixed-interval schedule which is in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (psychology book pg.279). A strategy a parent could use is read a book to their child, sit them down and make them listen without having any disturbances but the child should understand that it could be rewarding or there could be consequences if they do not listen. When the parent finishes reading the book to their child, the child must explain what the parent has read to them. When the child is not able to explain what they were just read to the parent should take away an hour of playtime and make them read a book on their own. In th is case this would be a negative reinforcement but through time the child would understand that when they are read to they should listen so they could understand and be able to explain what other people are reading to them which would help them when the child is in school because it would also teach them to listen to their teachers. A positive reinforcement could be, if the child is able to explain what the parent just read to them the parent should reward the child with a small dessert. The child will see that paying attention while someone is reading to them it can be rewarding and they will also see that through time reading can be rewarding. The third learning principle is observational learning. Observational learning is acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience (Psychology Book). This learning principle has a modeling and a vicarious learning; a modeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior (psychology book 290) and a vicarious learning our choices are affected as we see others get consequences for their behaviors. The best decision a parent should use while trying to teach their children that reading is fun would be modeling. Kids tend to copy one another and if a parents teaches their children to sit down for an hour and read to him or her they could be an influence to other children. Not only will this strategy be helping their academic performance it will help other kids with their performances as well. Kids tend to learn so much by observing other people and kids, parents could use that advantage to help their child be an influence to other kids and tell them that reading is something enjoyable. Parents need to teach their children that reading is fun that is something enjoyable so their child could be an influence to other kids and his or her friends. Parents could have difficulties with their children to get them to read but with classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and with observational learning it is possible. The parents have to start taking action because they are the ones that can help improve their child’s academic performance. Instead of letting their children play and waiting for them to start school so they could start learning how to read parents should be reading to them when they are three to four year old so they are used to it. Parents need to expose their children to books at a young age because at a young age a child may listen and through time they get used to reading but if they want to get their child to get used to reading in their teenage years is more difficult. Academic performances are very important in a child’s life because it determines their capability in school and in the world, and if by teaching a child to read at a young age helps them improve then that is what a parent shou ld be doing. Reference Page David G. Myers, D,B. (2013). Psychology 10th Edition, New York: Worth Publishers